Inductively Coupled Plasma †Atomic Emission Spectroscopy Essay Example for Free

Inductively Coupled Plasma – Atomic Emission Spectroscopy Essay The aim of this practical was to use an ICP-OES to perform a multi-elemental analysis of different types of tea. The elements that were analysed in the tea were copper, iron, manganese and magnesium. The sample is introduced into the plasma as an aerosol. Argon gas flows through three concentric quartz tubes in the plasma torch. This argon gas transports the sample from the nebulizer, acts as a cooling gas and is also a source of electrons and ions for the plasma [1]. A magnetic field is created around the plasma torch. The ionisation process is started by the ignition of the argon gas from a spark produced by a tesla coil [1]. During this process the plasma reaches a very high temperature and the sample is atomised. The atoms are then excited to a higher state. Since this is an emission analysis, the analysis is performed as the atoms emit energy and return to a lower energy state or their ground state. A spectrometer or monochromator is used to select the wavelength that is being analysed. The multi-element detector then gives us a readout that can be understand for each element that is analysed Explain the benefits and limitations of plasma over a conventional flame used for FES with photometry and AAS. The benefits of using plasma are that the chemical interferences are decreased due to the high temperatures that the plasma reaches and refractory elements can also undergo excitation. There are also many wavelength for different that can be chosen for analysis so you don’t have two elements that have wavelengths that are close to each other as this would interfere with the analysis. A limitation is that spectral overlap can occur and the preparation of the samples is a very long process compared to that of the flame spectrometry Data Show the calculations for you multi-element standard. Instrument: Perkin Elmer OES (optima 5300 DV) The preparation of multi-element standard 1000ppm solutions of (Cu), (Fe),(Mg) and (Mn ) were given. A working standard solution containing the entire four elements was prepared in the following way; 1 ml, 10 ml and 5 ml of Fe, Mg, and Mn were respectively added in one 100 ml volumetric flask. A solution of Cu was prepared separately (intermediate solution) by placing 1 ml of the 1000ppm Cu solution in a 100 ml volumetric flask and made up to the mark with distilled water, the resulting concentration was 10ppm. The formula that was used to calculate the volume of the 1000ppm Cu solution needed to prepare 10ppm solution in a 100 ml volumetric flask is; C1V1 = C2V2 †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ equation 1 Where C1 is the initial concentration C2 is the final concentration V1 is the volume of the initial concentration V2 is the total volume of the initial concentration and the solvent The volume of the barium required was calculated as follows C1V1 = C2V2 1000ppm x V1 = 1ppm x 100ml V1 = 10 ppm x 100 ml 1000 ppm = 1 ml Then 1 ml of the 10 ppm Cu solution was placed in the 100 ml volumetric flask that contained the other three elements, and made up to the mark with distilled water, this was the working standard solution. Using equation 1 it is found that the concentrations of the elements in the working standard solution are as follows. Explain why the type of sample preparation carried out was necessary. The Acid digestion was suitable because a complete transfer of analyte into the solution in order for the determination step to be introduced in liquid form is highly desirable and this method completely transfers the analyte into solution. This thus means that the digested sample is a complete solution of the analyte and has a complete decomposition of the matrix however with minimal loss or contaminated of the analyte Explain what matrix matching is and what problems may arise if this is not carried out. Matrix matching involves preparing solutions in which the major chemical compositions of the standards, blanks and samples are made identical thereby cancelling out the effect of the sample matrix on the analysis results. While matrix matching involves matching the solvents, it also involves matching the concentrations of acids and other major solutes. In case where the standard and sample matrices are quite different or cannot be matched and interference occurs as a result, internal standards can be used. Comment on the correlation coefficient of your calibration graphs. The correlation coefficient measures the strength in the linear relationship between two variables. A correlation coefficient of 1 would mean a very strong linear relationship between two variables, which means the points form a perfect straight line. The correlation coefficients for the calibration graphs were very good. The calibration graphs for copper, iron, magnesium, and manganese gave correlation coefficients of 0.991539, 0.991005, 0.999874, and 0.999952 respectively. This shows that the samples were prepared very well and that there is a strong linear relationship between the emission and the concentrations of the elements. Compare the different elements in the different types of tea. Which tea would you recommend and why? The tea that seems to be most essential for human consumption is the green tea owing to the high content of each and every element present in it. It has high concentration of manganese which is a vital substance in the body as it is an enzyme activator; it keeps bones strong and healthy, and also maintains the health of our nerves. References 1. Dr L Pillay, Chem 340, Instrumental Analysis, ICP-OES notes 2. http:// www.whfoods.com/genpage.php?tname=nutrint dbod=77(accessed 16/04/2013) 3. http://www.chemplex.com/petrochemical/multielementMetal.aspx(accessed 16/04/2013)

Balanced Diet for an Adult Essay Example for Free

Balanced Diet for an Adult Essay Food is an integral part of human life providing energy for cellular activities to keep us healthy. According to World Health Organization (2013), healthy nutrition is ingesting an adequate and well balanced diet in relation to the body’s dietary needs and when combined with regular physical activities is the cornerstone to good health. A diet containing the right portions of all the five food groups of the Eatwell Plate (figure1 and appendix1 for recommended servings) known as a balanced diet will provide the organic macronutrients including proteins, carbohydrates and lipids and the micronutrients, vitamins and minerals to sustain life. Only ingested carbohydrates, proteins and lipids will count towards total caloric intake and will be digested into monomers like glucose for absorption and assimilation. National Health Service (2012) recommends daily caloric intake of 2500Kcal and 2000Kcal which will be derived from the proteins, lipids and carbohydrate sources in a diet for average adult males and females respectively. Age, sex, health condition and physical activities influence dietary needs. This essay will discuss a balanced diet for an adult including the structure, sources, functions, recommended daily allowance (RDAs), deficiency and excessive effects of the macronutrients. Also the micronutrients and water which are not considered as nutrients will be discussed. THE FOOD PYRAMID [pic]Figure1 (NHS 2011) Carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. British Nutrition Foundation (2013), recommends that 47.7% (203g) and 48.5% (275g) of daily energy should come from carbohydrates for females and males respectively with 29g being roughages. Carbohydrates exist naturally or refined as monosaccharides that are reducing sugars. Monosaccharides build the complex carbohydrates, disaccharides and polysaccharides through dehydration synthesis. Monosaccharides have general formula (CH2O)n where ‘n’ determines whether pentose(5Carbons) or hexose (6Carbons). Glucose found in maple syrup, fructose in corn syrup and galactose in honey are hexose-isomers; having the same formula, C6H12O6 but different structures. The disaccharides with the general formula C12H22O11 are sucrose made from fructose and glucose, maltose from two glucose molecules and lactose from galactose and glucose. Sucrose is derived from beet sugar, lactose from milk and maltose from vinegar. The polysaccharides with general formula (C6H10O5)n where 40≠¤n≠¤3000, exist as starch or non-starch polysaccharides (NSPs) which can be soluble or insoluble. Starch consists of glucose molecules joined by glycosidic bonds. The NSPs include oligosaccharide (raffinose) and cellulose (dietary fibre). Potatoes, yams and cassava are rich in starch and are very digestible. Whole grain cereals, legumes (appendix2), fruits and storage vegetables like asparagus and cabbage are rich in the NSPs. Raffinose is an indigestible trisaccharide of fructose,glucose and galactose with formula C18H32O16. Animal sources of carbohydrates are liver and scallops. Carbohydrates provide sweetness and are the primary source of energy especially for brain and blood cells. Cellular respiration converts glucose monomers into ATP. Fats cannot be oxidised without glucose. Most NSPs are partially digestible or indigestible due to lack of ÃŽ ±-galactosidae (enzyme) in GI Tract. They reduce glycaemia index and plasma cholesterol levels, increase bile acid excretion, promote normal laxation and prevent breast cancer, gallstones, haemorrhoids, and irritable bowel syndrome (Kumar et all 2012). Furthermore, Kumar (2012) concluded that excessive carbohydrates will cause dental decay, kidney damage, stroke, diabetes due to obesity and short term conditions like hyperglycaemia. Carbohydrate deficiency will cause constipation, fatigue, weak immunity, muscle cramps and ketosis; this is very rare as 50g/day of carbohydrate is needed to prevent ketosis. THE DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS TO FORM MALTOSE [pic]Figure2 EQUATION: (C6H12O6 + C6H12O6 = C12H22O11 + H2O) (Marshall University 2012) Proteins or polypeptides consist of three to 100000 or more long chains of the organic molecules called amino acids joined together by covalent peptide bonds. A protein of two amino acids is called a dipeptide. There are 20 common forms of amino acids either termed non-essential (synthesised by the liver) and essential that needs to be ingested. Proteins consist of a central carbon atom, a hydrogen atom, amino group (-NH2), Carboxylic group (-COOH) and the variable R group (figure3). The term amino acid is derived from the amino and carboxylic groups that all amino acids have in common. According Kuil (2012), principal sources of proteins are lean meat, seafood, poultry, eggs, cereals, legumes (refer to appendix3), cereals and processed food like low-fat milk. Proteins form about 45% of human body and perform the following seven essential functions: structural (hair, ligaments), contractile (muscles), transport (haemoglobin), metabolic regulation (enzymes), buffering, defence (antibodies) and coordination and control (hormones) (Martini 2006). Haemoglobin transports oxygen and a lack of protein (haemoglobin) can deny vital organs the needed oxygen for metabolism. Protein deficiency can also cause fatigue, anaemia, weak immunity, skin problems, impairment of cognition and mental health problems. Whereas excessive proteins can cause obesity, osteoporosis and kidney stones (Georgetown University 2012). About 15% of an adults’ caloric intake should come from protein equivalent to 56g and 46g for male and female respectively (Centre for Diseases Control and Prevention, 2012). DEHYDRATION OF AMINO ACIDS TO FORM DIPEPTIDE PROTEINS [pic]Figure3 (Marshall University 2012) Lipids are made up of an even number of carbon from 12 to 20, oxygen, hydrogen and sometimes traces of phosphorus, sulphur or nitrogen. Lipids are grouped into 4: steroids, phospholipids, waxes and glycerides. Most of the 70 identified lipids are synthesised by the body whereas linoleic (omega6) and alpha-linolenic (omega3) acids are two essential lipids to be ingested. They are mostly insoluble due to the long chain of hydrophobic carbon-carbon end bonded to a short hydrophilic carboxyl group. The double covalent bond, (C=C) determines whether saturated (no C=C) or monounsaturated (1 C=C) or polyunsaturated (2 or more C=C). Glycerides are made up of glycerol bonded to 1 or more fatty acids by dehydration synthesis, triglyceride with 3 fatty acids is the predominant of the lipids (refer figure4). Unsaturated sources of lipids are olive oil, peanut, salmon, halibut and avocados. Saturated sources are butter, sausage and hydrogenated oil. According to British Dietetic Association (2013), adults should consume not more than 20-30g of saturated-fat with 5g or less being trans-fat since saturated lipids are high in cholesterol. The structural lipids form cell membranes. Also fat cushions and protects organs including liver, heart, and kidney, energy source; twice as much as carbohydrates and proteins, thermoregulation (insulation), sex hormones, transport vitamins and monounsaturated fat can decrease cholesterol levels (USA Department of Agriculture, 2010). Excessive consumption of lipids will lead to obesity which is characterised by high BMI as shown in appendix 2, cardiovascular diseases, hypertension, colorectal cancer and diabetes, whereas deficiency will result in the body lacking the vital vitamins A,D,E and K (Schenker, 2012). DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS TO FORM TRIGLYCERIDE [pic]Figure4 (Marshall University 2012) The micronutrients, vitamins and minerals are needed in minute quantities. Minerals can be classified as major or trace of which a few are essential including sodium, potassium, magnesium, zinc, iron, calcium, iodine, etc. (refer to appendix4 for RDAs). According to Higdon and Drake (2011), sources of minerals are plants that derive them from the soil and move on the food chain to the herbivores like cattle that eat them. Spinach, legumes, whole grains, dairy products, red meat, soybeans, salmon, cod, iodised table salt (iodine, sodium, chlorine) and eggs are excellent sources of minerals. According to Whitley and Rolfes (2011), minerals perform the following functions: the electrolytes, sodium, potassium and chlorine transmit nerve impulses, control fluid balance (providing optimum pH for enzyme activities), control blood pressure and relax and contract muscles. Zinc, copper and selenium are antioxidants; they reduce the risk of heart diseases. Iron forms haemoglobin. Sodium and potassium coregulate ATP production. Calcium and phosphorus control blood clotting and together with magnesium build bones, teeth, maintain muscle and nerve cells. Iodine is needed for the production of thyroxin; deficiency will cause goitre. Since some minerals are coenzymes, deficiency will cause malfunctioning cellular activities (digestion, metabolism). Iron deficiency causes anaemia whereas calcium, phosphorus and magnesium (hypocalcaemia) deficiency will cause osteoporosis. Calcium, magnesium and the electrolytes deficiencies will cause weakness, muscle cramps and impaired alertness. Zinc deficiency causes diarrhoea, skin and prostate cancers. Their intake should be balanced with use and excretion as excess may cause Hyperkalaemia (potassium), kidney-stones (calcium) and hypernatremia (sodium). Vitamins are grouped into water soluble (WSV) including C and B complex vitamins; they cannot be stored and therefore, it is imperative to be part of a balanced diet, and fat soluble (FS) including vitamins K,E,D, and A; they can be stored (refer appendix 5 for RDA). Green leafy vegetables (lettuce), oranges, kiwi fruit, avocados, whole grains and cereals, banana, dairy products, liver, poultry, pork, oily fish, eggs, soybeans, chickpeas and nuts are excellent sources of the vitamins (Firth 2011). Vitamin K can be synthesised in the intestine which helps the blood clot whereas Vitamin D can be synthesised by the body using sunlight to help the absorption of calcium and phosphorus (Cranney et al (2010). Vitamins A and C build immunity. Vitamins B1,B2,B3, and biotin help release energy. Vitamin A, niacin and pantothenic acid aid the absorption and use of macronutrients monomers. Vitamin C makes collagen and enhances folate absorption. Vitamin deficiency generally causes weak immunity and osteoporosis (Vitamin D), scurvy (Vitamin C), beriberi (B1), anaemia (B12 and folate) and night blindness (Vitamin A). Excessive amounts of vitamins E and K are usually not harmful but excess A,D and the WSV which can be excreted cause kidney problems and hypercalcaemia (excess D). Excessive vitamin C causes diarrhoea (NHS 2012). In conclusion, spending excessively on supplements and creams as well as engaging in dangerous diets like the Atkins Diet are not necessary. The secret to healthy living is carefully selecting the right proportions of food from the Eatwell plate, drinking enough water in combination with regular exercises. Figure 5 and appendix 6 show functions of water. Consider the positives and negatives when selecting food products such as red meat; rich in protein but high in cholesterol whereas fatty fish enhances calcium absorption. Soybean, liver, green leafy vegetables, whole grains and legumes will provide almost all the nutrients; combine them in your diet in right proportions for optimal hormonal, metabolic, mental and physical functions of the body. It is important to consult a doctor before starting any diet as nutritional needs are affected by health and some medications affect absorption of nutrients. FUNCTIONS OF WATER IN THE BODY [pic]Figure 5 Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research, 2013 LIST OF APPENDIXES APPENDIX 1 |FOOD GROUP |SERVINGS PER DAY | |Carbohydrates including bread, pasta, rice, potatoes and other starchy foods |6-10 servings | |Fruits and vegetables |3-5 servings | |Meat, fish, eggs, beans and nuts |2-3 servings | |Milk and dairy foods |2-3 servings | |Food and drinks high in fat and/or in sugar |Use sparingly | University of Michigan Integrative Medicine, 2010 APPENDIX 2: OBESITY AND BODY MASS INDEX (BMI) |BMI |LEVEL OF OBESITY | |Below 18.5 |Underweight | |From 18.5-24.9 |Healthy Range | |From 25-30 |Pre Obese | |Above 30 |Obese | NHS, 2012 APPENDIX 3: FOOD GROUPS AND EXAMPLES |FOOD GROUP |EXAMPLES | |Legumes |Beans, Lentils, Peas, Chickpeas, French beans, Kidney , soybeans, Coco beans etc. | |Whole grains |Barley, Corn, Millet, Oats, Rice, Milo, Wheat | |Green leafy vegetables |Spinach, Broccoli, Lettuce, Cabbage, Mustard green, Kale examples | APPENDIX 4: MINERALS AND THEIR RDA |SYMBLE |SOURCES |RDA | |Na (Sodium) |Table Salt, Sea vegetables, spinach, milk |6g | |Ca (Calcium) |Salmon, Sardine, eggs, dairy products, nuts, oregano |700mg | |K (Potassium) |Spinach, legumes, tomatoes, banana, avocado, whole grains and |3500mg | | |yams | | |P (Phosphate) |Fish, poultry, oats, rice, red meat, |700mg | |Fe (Iron) |Eggs, spinach, shrimps, soybeans, lentils, tomatoes, olives, |M=8.7mg / F=4.8mg | | |tomatoes | | |Mg (Magnesium) |Spinach, soybean, sea vegetables, tomatoes, beans, brazil nuts|M=300mg / F=270mg | |I (Iodine) |Eggs, milk, fish, shellfish, yoghurt, strawberries, iodised |0.14mg | | |salt | | |Se (Selenium) |Cod, salmon, garlic, lamb, cheese, calf liver, barley, brazil |75mcg | | |nuts | | |Zn (Zinc) |Calf liver, spinach, eggs, oats, oyster, lean pork and beef, |M=5.5-9.5mg / F=4-7mg | | |asparagus | | USA Department of Agriculture / Department of Health, 2010 APPENDIX 5: VITAMINS AND THEIR RDA’S |VITAMIN |SOURCES |RDA | |Retinol (A) |Liver, fish oil, carotenoids, milk fortified |M=0.7mg / F=0.6mg | |Ascorbic acid (C) |Citrus (oranges), kiwi fruit, broccoli |40mg | |Thiamin (B1) |Liver, pork, whole grains and products |M=1mg / F=0.8mg | |Riboflavin (B2) |Liver, eggs, milk, rice, mushrooms |M=1.3mg / F=1.1mg | |Niacin (B3) |Poultry, fish, beef, peanut butter, legumes |M=17mg / F=13mg | |Pyridoxine (B6) |Liver, pork, legumes, fish, whole grains |M=1.4mg / F=1.2mg | |Cobalamin (B12) |Beef, poultry, cod, salmon, cheese, eggs |0.0015mg | |Vitamin E |Vegetable oil, green vegetables, nuts |12mg | |Folate |Broccoli, peas, asparagus, brown rice |0.2mg | |Pantothenic acid |Milk, fruits, veggies, meat, fish, grains |10mg | |Biotin |Cottage cheese, liver, eggs, peanut, grain |300mcg | |Vitamin K |Green vegetables, fruits, nuts |75mg | |Note that Vitamin K can be synthesised in the intestine whereas Vitamin D can be derived salmon, fortified cereals and juices, milk and | |sunlight (No RD A but 15minutes in the sun thrice a week is enough) | USA Department of Agriculture / Department of Health, 2010 APPENDIX 6: RECOMMENDED DAILY ALLOWANCE FOR WATER |SEX |RDA FOR WATER | |MALE |3.7L with no upper limit increase with exercise to rehydrate | |FEMALE |2.7L with no upper limit increase with exercise to rehydrate and increase intake when | | |breast feeding. | INSTITUTE OF MEDICENE 2004 REFERENCE LIST ONLINE âž ¢ British Dietetic Association (2013) Food fact sheet: cholesterol [Online] Available from: http://www.bda.uk.com/foodfacts/cholesterol.pdf [Accessed on 20/02/2013]. âž ¢ British Nutrition Foundation (2013) Confusion on fat and heart health [Online]. Available from: http://www.nutrition.org.uk/nutritioninthenews/headlines/fats [Accessed on 20/02/2013]. âž ¢ Centre for Diseases Control and Prevention (2012) Nutrition for everyone: Protein [Online] Available from: http://www.cdc.gov/nutrition/everyone/basics/protein.html [Accessed on 19/12/2013]. âž ¢ Cranney et al, (2007) Effectiveness and safety of vitamin D in relation to bone health [Online] Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18088161?dopt=Abstract [Accessed on 20/02/2013]. âž ¢ Institute of Medicine, Food and Nutrition Board. (2004) Dietary reference intakes: Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride and Sulphate. Washington DC: Institute of Medicine. [Online]. Available from: www.iom.edu/Reports/2004/Dietary-Reference-Intakes-Water-Potassium- [Accessed on 20/02/2013]. âž ¢ Institute of Medicine, Food and Nutrition Board (2010) Dietary reference intakes for Calcium and Vitamin D. Washington DC: Institute of Medicine. [Online]. Available from: http://www.iom.edu/~/media/Files/Report%20Fil.pdf [Accessed on 20/02/2013]. âž ¢ Marshall University (2012) [Online] Available from: http://science.marshall.edu/murraye/alpha_amylase.htm [Accessed on 18/02/2013]. âž ¢ Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research [no date] Nutrition and healthy eating: functions of water in the body. [Online] Available from: http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/medical/IM00594 [Accessed on 19/02/2013]. âž ¢ National Health Service (2011) [Online] Available from: http://www.nhs.uk/Livewell/Goodfood/Pages/eatwell-plate.aspx [Accessed on 17/02/2013]. âž ¢ National Health Service (2011) [Online] Available from: http://www.nhs.uk/chq/Pages/3215.aspx?CategoryID=51 [Accessed on 17/02/2013]. âž ¢ National Health Service (2012) [Online] Available from: http://www.nhs.uk/chq/Pages/1126.aspx?CategoryID=51SubCategoryID=164 [Accessed on 17/02/2013]. âž ¢ United States of America. Department of Agriculture/Department of Health and Human Services (2010), Dietary guidelines for Americans, Washington DC: US Government Printing Office. [Online] Available from: http://www.health.gov/dietaryguidelines/dga2010/DietaryGuidelines2010.pdf [Accessed: 19/02/2013]. âž ¢ University of Michigan Integrative Medicine (2010) Healing foods pyramid [Online] Available from: http://www.med.umich.edu/umim/food-pyramid/fats.htm [Accessed on 20/02/2013]. âž ¢ World Health Organisation (2013) [Online] Available from: http://www.who.int/topics/nutrition/en/ [Accessed: 17/02/2013]. ONLINE JOURNALS âž ¢ Kumar et all (2012) Dietary roles of non-starch polysaccharides in human nutrition: a review. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, Volume 52(10). [Online] Available from: http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10408398.2010.512671?url_ver=Z39.88-2003rfr_id=ori:rid:crossref.orgrfr_dat=cr_pub%3dpubmed. [Accessed on 23/02/2013]. âž ¢ Schenker S. (2012). UK recommendations for dietary fat: should they be reassessed in light of the recent FAO/WHO recommendations? Nutrition Bulletin, 37(1), pp. 37-46. [Online] Available from: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-3010.2011.01946.x/full [Accessed on 20/02/2013]. BOOKS âž ¢ Firth L. (2011) Nutrition and diet. Issues 205, Cambridge: Independence Educational Press. âž ¢ Higdon, J. and Drake, V. J. (2011) An evidenced-based approach to vitamins and minerals: health benefits and intake recommendation. 2nd Edition. New York: Thieme. âž ¢ Kuil W. A D. (2012) Sources of dietary protein and risk of hypertension in a general Dutch population, British Journal of Nutrition, 108 (10), pp. 1897-1903. âž ¢ Martini F. H. (2006) Fundamentals of anatomy and physiology. 7th Edition. San Francisco: Pearson Education. pp. 39-58. âž ¢ Whitney, E. and Rolfes S. R. (2011) Understanding nutrition. 12th Edition. Belmont: Wadsworth. BIBLIOGRAPHY ONLINE âž ¢ British Dietetic Association (2013) Food fact sheet: sugar [Online] Available from: http://www.bda.uk.com/foodfacts/Sugar.pdf [Accessed on 20/02/02013] âž ¢ Georgetown University (2012) Proteins: what does it do? [Online] Available from: http://www.georgetown.edu/admin/auxiliarysrv/dining/nutrition/protein.html [Accessed on 20/02/2013]. âž ¢ Stoner, L et al (2012) Preventing a Cardiovascular Disease Epidemic among Indigenous Populations through Lifestyle Changes. [Online] Available from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3354392/ [Accessed on 20/02/2013]. BOOKS âž ¢ Blomhoff R, et al. Health benefits of nuts: potential role of antioxidants. British Journal of Nutrition. 2006; 96. âž ¢ New Zealand. Ministry of Health (2003), Food and nutrition guideline for healthy adults: a background paper, Wellington: Ministry of Health. âž ¢ Rolfes, S. R. et al (2009) Understanding normal and clinical nutrition. 8th Edition. Belmont: Wadsworth. ONLINE VIDEOS âž ¢ Dairy: essential nutrition or health saboteur? – Keon, J. (2011) [Online video]. Available from: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cp9MwjW5QX0 [Accessed on 20/02/2013]. âž ¢ Good nutrition made easy: how to grow a healthy adult Davidson, L. (2012) [Online video]. Available from: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6qAeAzreESg [Accessed on 20/02/2013].

Challenges Facing The Translator English Language Essay

Challenges Facing The Translator English Language Essay The personal pleasure derived from translation is the excitement of trying to solve a thousand small problems in the context of a large one. A translation obligates the translator to make a number of decisions so that a complete translation is produced. Such a translation must be written in a way which serves the same function as the source text and be culturally coherent between the source and target languages. In this essay I will discuss a range of decisions that the translator must make and making specific references to textual analysis, cultural mediation and some applied aspects of translation. The translation begins with the reading of the source text which allows the translator to identify the several key components which will form the foundations of the translation. The translator must do a detailed textual analysis so that the intention, readership and setting of the source text are identified. (Newmark P, 1988) I find this to be the first challenge that faces the translator as a number of decisions must be made to clarify where the translation will be published, who the translation is going to be targeted at; and what the function of the text will be. (Alfano V, 2012) Newmark (1988) states The intention of the text represents the source language writers attitude to the subject matter.For the translator, understanding what is meant by the author of the source text is vital as the attitude of the author will suggest the language function and setting of the target text. Bà ¼hlers theory of language functionality can determine a text to have an expressive, vocative or informative function depending on the core topic and status of the author. The challenge for the translator is to determine ones own status within the text in order to identify the language function. Newmark gives examples of the authors status being anonymous; he shows that this status can be used for an informative or vocative text depending on its main function. If the main function of the text was to tell the truth, it would suggest that the text takes an informative language function, whereas a text concentrating on the readership would suggest a vocative function. (Newmark P, 1988 ) During the textual analysis the translator must assess the readership; I consider this to be a particular challenge for the translator as one must try to assess the level of education, class, age and sex of the readership before determining it to be for an expert reader, uninformed reader or educated layman. (Newmark P, p.13) Depending on the readership the translator may need to pay more attention to the readers of the target text than that of the source text. A physical geography textbook aimed at an uneducated readership would use general vocabulary in order to aid the readership into understanding the text; The floor of the sea is covered with rows of big mountains, whereas for the educated layman, the translator may use topic specific vocabulary as there is an assumption that the context of the text would be enough for the reader to handle the key issues; The floor of the ocean is covered with great mountain chains and deep trenches. (Newmark P, p.p.13-14) The variation in style depends on the readership and setting of the target text. Newmark (1988) suggests using Martin Joos and Strevens stylistic scales when assessing the level of formality within the text. The final aspect of the textual analysis that I consider to be challenging for the translator is determining the setting of the target text in order to fulfil the requirements of the client. The translator must decide what the target text equivalent is for the source text, and then decide the type of language that must be used to suit the publication. For example, The Guardian newspaper is aimed at an educated upper-middle class readership; this means that the language used would be educated and written in a formal style. The translator in this example does not need to pay particular attention to the readership unless there are cultural discrepancies within in the text. This essay has referred to a number of issues that the translator faces before translating into the target language. Here, we can see that it is imperative that the translator makes the correct decisions whilst conducting a textual analysis in order to identify the key features within the text so that one can appropriately translate into the target language. Following the textual analysis there are further issues which cause concern for the translator. These issues come under the heading of cultural mediation; a translator must be aware that some expressions, professions and activities are not realised in every language, thus the translator must decide how to translate them. The translation of culture specific references poses a particular issue for the translator as some words may not be translatable, therefore the translator must employ the relevant translation method to suit the problem. During a translation the translator must ask oneself whether the words in the source language are transferable in the target language. The translation of cultural words such as les pieds noirs and les maghrà ©bins cannot be literally translated as they have no meaning in the target language. Cultural and descriptive equivalents can be used to solve this issue. The translator can give extra information in order to maintain a functional equivalency within the text. Descriptive equivalent: les pieds noirs ou les maghrà ©bins; 2nd generation immigrants originating from Algeria and North Africa. Cultural equivalent: les pieds noirs ou les maghrà ©bins  ; French Algerians (les francais dalgerie) Neutralisation: les pieds noirs ou les maghrà ©bins; black Immigrant    Newmark (1988) states that the translators role is to make people understand, not to mystify by using vogue words. thus literally translating the words may not be enough for the reader to understand what has been written in the text. le ministre de lintà ©rieur being translated as the minister of the interior holds no value in English whereas Home secretary or Director of homeland security is a known position to the readership in the target language. This is an example of using cultural equivalency in order to ensure that the Target text reader can understand the text. I will now discuss some of the applied aspects of translation. There are many fields in which a translator can practice ones profession; other than literary translation, one can work in an array of subject areas such as commerce, law and film. Even though the translators role is the same in every field, some challenges are presented to the translator more clearly in some practices than others. The translation of humour may seem straight forward in ones mind but the question must arise to the translator that some expressions and phrases that are funny in ones own language and culture may be different in another. Vandaeles definition of humour: Humour is what causes amusement, mirth, a Spontaneous smile and laughter. (eds Gambier Y and Van Doorslaer L, 2010) The translator must understand the catalyst which makes phrases humorous in the target language, so that one can appropriately replicate the effect of the source text. The translator must provoke feelings of positive arousal when enticing these emotive feelings from the readership; however a balance between fidelity and transparency must be maintained in the target language in order to receive the same humorous effect as one receives from the source language. (Vandaele J, 2002) How does the translator achieve this? There are a number of factors which make a phrase or expression funny. Often the topic, situation and presentation of a joke can evoke feelings of humour and could be seen as a branch of translating culture. Kopp J (2012) explains that current affairs play a big part in the context of humour and uses the example of topic based current affairs programs such as Have I got news for you, (by the BBC) to elaborate this: Alan Davies: Eight hundred Americans die in a McDonalds every year. Rich Hall: Which one? Best to avoid that one. (QI.wikiquote, 2013) The above quote shows that context is important in order to find the joke humorous. Even though it is possible that the presentation of the joke can affect the recipients perception of the joke, those living in the west are knowledgeable that America is facing a crisis in terms of the levels of obesity within the country. Alan Davies is portrayed to be giving a fact about the number of deaths that occur within the fast-food franchise McDonalds each year. However Rick hall plays on Davies use of the singular proper noun, a McDonalds, giving the impression that eight hundred Americans die in one particular franchise of the fast-food chain each year. Why is this funny? Kopp J (2012) suggests that the ridicule of a nation or group of people can evoke a humorous outcome; here, the emphasis on the death of Americans suggests a cultural elitism amongst those who are not of an American nationality, thus creating a humorous situation. She also states that the knowledge shared by the recipient is important as one that does not know of the situation on Americas obesity crisis or does not have knowledge of the McDonalds fast-food chain cannot readily understand the joke. The translator must understand that some communities may not recognize this because they do not have knowledge of the subject. Therefore the translator may add information to the translation in order to achieve the same humorous effect. [FR] Alan Davies : il y a 800 amà ©ricains qui meurent dans un McDo chaque annà ©e. [FR] Rick Hall  : Ça cest Vrai  ? On ne devrait pas aller du mà ªme McDo alors  ! Here we can see that all of the key elements from the source language remain in the translation as the audience of the target language are culturally aware of the situation created by Davies and Hall during their sketch. However the use of meme by Hall clarifies his point of not wishing to go to a restaurant in which 800 people have died. The next challenge I will refer to is the issue of legal translation. I find this to be an issue for the translator as one must show transparency in ones translation. The fidelity to the source text is no longer sacred as one must be even more conscious of the technicality of the subject matter. The translator must be faithful to the law and communicate it effectively, rather than concentrating on the translation of idiomatic expressions in the source text, the translation must remain transparent enough so that the message of the law remains clear whilst maintaining a functional equivalence to the source text. The requirement for legal translation is increasing due to an increased access for people and businesses to travel freely. This means that the law in every country needs to be translated so that there is access for people to read on the law of the country they plan to visit or work. This only becomes an issues for translators when legal conventions and government institutions do not have a cultural equivalent in the target language or that the running of the institution is governed in a different way to that of the same institution in the source language. (Riberi, 2012) thus the greatest obstacle in legal translation is the incongruity of legal systems between countries. (Ã…Â  arcevic S, 2000) This poses a problem when translating legal texts as there are a number of functions which a legal text can perform. However I find that the problematical legal text takes a prescriptive function; it is used to inform the reader about actions and sanctions that will occur if one does not co nform to a specific ruling. However, how does one translate a course of action that does not exist in the target language? Continental law does not prescribe the death penalty, yet a French holiday maker traveling to a country, such as Thailand, which does prescribe the death penalty could unknowingly be put under this sanction without knowledge of it unless the translator appropriately translates the term. Thus the translation of prescriptive legal texts is a challenging practice for a translator. Throughout this essay I discussed a number challenges that face the translator. Even though this essay has not explored all of the issues that face the translator, it gives a broad perspective on the decisions that the translator must make during ones practice and that the translator can sometimes be accountable for the reader not receiving the same effect from the target text than that of the source text. I have answered the question to what I consider to be the biggest challenges facing translator and I think the work to be done during the textual analysis is the hardest challenge that translator faces during ones work. The decisions which the translator makes during this time will affect the quality of the final translation. Thus making the correct decisions in the textual analysis is vital to a complete translation. A key theme shown within the essay is cultural mediation. The translator must assume what the readership knows and what the readership is culturally able to understand. When one is translating the text, the translator must make decisions to change the ideas in the text to suit the readership in order to evoke the same effect given when reading the source text. This concept is clear in the translation of humour as some cultures are not able to readily understand western humour, and therefore must be given an alternative discourse to the source text in order to maintain a functional equivalent; which is to evoke laughter from the readership. (Vandaele J, 2002) My final point on challenges for the translator is legal translation and this essay concludes on the difficulties that the translator faces when trying to maintain function equivalents between texts whilst coping with incongruent legal systems and maintain the fine between fidelity and transparency in the target language. The translator must make decisions when facing sanctions which are not realised in other countries and find ways to inform the readership of this whilst holding ones fidelity to the effectiveness of the plurilingual communication of the law. (Riberi J, 2012)

Ancient Roman Government :: essays research papers

The city of Rome is located on the Tiber River in Italy. It has nearby volcanoes that spread ash across the city, promoting the arable land. Rome began about 1,000 B.C., and was founded by Romulus and Remus. The Etruscans were a people who conquered the early Romans in 616 B.C., and ruled over them for the next 100 years. Around 550 B.C., the Romans finally kicked the Etruscans out and began to rule themselves again. They came up with a new type of government called a republic. An Athenian democracy had one leader at the top and was elected by the citizens. After the election, all the citizens helped run the city because everybody voted. This is the type of government Rome had before the Etruscans conquered it. After that, there was a Roman Republic. The Roman Republic had a group at the top and was elected by the citizens as well. After the election, voters did not do much in terms of running the city. In the Roman Republic there were two consuls, or leaders elected by the voters. The citizens had representatives that voted for them. There was a senate, or a part of the government, which was made up of the representatives of the upper class. These representatives were called senators and the upper class was called patricians. There was also an assembly, or a part of the government that was made up of representatives of the common people. These representatives were called tribunes and the lower class was called plebeians. In addition to these, there was a forum. It was originally the main downtown area of Rome, but it later became the center of Rome?s government, religion, and arts. By 264 B.C., Rome was having problems with Carthage, the capital city of the Phoenician Empire. It was directly across from Rome in North Africa and both wanted control of Corsica and Sardinia. In 261 B.C., there was the first Punic war. Twenty years later, the Romans won, but they were losing the first ten years. Then they gained new ships and began to win. They gained control of Corsica, Sardinia, and Sicily. In 221 B.C., the second Punic war was started when Hannibal, a Carthaginian general, wanted revenge on the Romans because his father was killed in the first Punic war. In 202 B.C., there was the Battle of Zama when the Roman general Scipio went up against Hannibal.

Comparative Analysis of Australian Aboriginals, Torres Strait Islanders, and the First Nations of Canada :: Equality Health Human Development Essays

Comparative Analysis of Australian Aboriginals, Torres Strait Islanders, and the First Nations of Canada INTRODUCTION Equality in health implies that ideally everyone should have a fair opportunity to attain his or her full health potential and, more reasonably, that no one should be disadvantaged from achieving this potential. Based on this definition, the aim of policy for equity and health is not to eliminate all health differences so that everyone has the same level and quality of health, but rather to reduce or eliminate those which result from factors which are considered to be avoidable and unfair. To appreciate the importance of striving for equity in relation to health, it is necessary to be aware of just how extensive are the differences in health found in the world today. In every part of the region, and in every type of political and social system, differences in health have been noted between different social groups and between different geographical areas in the same country (Whitehead 2000). There is consistent evidence that inequalities in health result in disadvantaged groups having poorer survival chances, suffering a heavier burden of illness, and sharing a similar pattern of low quality of life The poor health of the Australian Aboriginals and Torres Strait Islanders is well known. Since the 1970s, mortality rates have been declining, but life expectancy has not changed and the gap between the Aboriginal population and the total Australian population has widened. This pattern contrasts with that of the Indigenous population of Canada where marked improvements in health have occurred. From that standpoint, this paper will discuss the important issues of health care inequalities that exist with the Aboriginals in Australia and compare them to those which subsist in the First Nations of Canada. POPULATION OF AUSTRALIA Australians have among the highest life expectancy in the world and most have ready access to comprehensive health care of high quality. In the 1995 National Health Survey, 83% of Australians aged 15 or over reported their overall health as excellent, very good or good (ABS 1997). The average life expectancy in 2000 was high for both men and women being 76 years and 82 years respectively. In terms of disability-adjusted life expectancy (DALE), Australia ranks in 2nd place after 191 countries (WHO 2000). In 1998, males at birth could expect to live for 63.3 years without experiencing major disability and women could live for 57.

Urban Legend of Mount de Sales Academy :: Urban Legends Ghost Stories

Mount de Sales Academy When one usually thinks of a hearing a ghost story, the setting is dark with flickering light (such as around a campfire or in a basement with bad lighting) and, of course, it is nighttime. Needless to say, when I heard this story during the middle of the day on a Friday, I was a little taken aback. When prompted for any urban legends or ghost stories a white, female friend of mine immediately responded with, â€Å"Have you ever heard of de Sales Academy?† With my negative response, the nineteen year old student jumped into her story: Mount De Sales Academy is one of those Catholic, all girls’ schools that teaches their students to be good Catholics and all that. In the 1940s, however, there was one girl who didn’t listen to all the rules and became pregnant. For the time, this was a terrible situation and the girl didn’t know what to do. She lived at the school on the top floor and eventually committed suicide instead of facing the trouble she would have been in. Ever since then, there have been reports in the school of doors opening and closing with no possible explanation and silhouettes seen in the windows when there should be no one at the school. The storyteller had not witnessed the strange happenings at the school but claimed to know someone who had seen the disturbances. As a performance, the telling of this story was very matter a fact and my friend did not self-aggrandize; the performance was quick, to the point, but not particularly dramatic. The storyteller told the legend as fact and was not melodramatic about her role as storyteller. While researching the story I was only able to find one specific reference to Mount de Sales and any ghostly presence there. However, at this online repository of lore relating to the State of Maryland, Mount de Sales Academy is mentioned along with â€Å"reports of doors open[ing] and clos[ing] while locked and†¦a bright blue silhouette walk[ing] by the windows† (Juliano and Carlson). Further research found no other reference to de Sales in any stories and no reference to any suicide or murder at the school. The additional tale found relating to the Catonsville school does reflect the story told to me. Both mention doors opening and closing without cause along with a ghostly silhouette; but there is no reference in the Internet source of the suicide of a pregnant girl.

Business Organisational Behaviour Essay

Demonstrate the influence of environmental and behavioural factors on corporate size, structure and strategy. (b) Understand the processes of business planning and policy making and the reason for change over time. Percentage of marks awarded for module: This assignment is worth 50% of the total marks for the module Assessment criteria   Explanatory comments on the assessment criteria   Maximum marks for each section   Content, style, relevance, originality   Clear demonstration of rigorous research from recognised authoritative sources. Audience focus. 50%  Format, referencing, bibliography   HarvardÃ'Ž Assignment Task As a retail consultant you have been commissioned by a high street outlet, of your own choice, to prepare a strategy that will help them to compete for many years to come in a rapidly changing environment. The strategy will include methods of recognising how external changes impact upon the firm and the various techniques that may be used in the implementation of change. Consideration must also be given to the structure and size of the firm and how it presents itself to it’s stackholders.